The Online Magazine for Sustainable Seas
December, 2002 Vol.5 No.12
|
|
The Online Magazine for Sustainable Seas December, 2002 Vol.5 No.12 |
| |
|
 |
|
|
More recently, however, comparative research that surveyed numerous such
MPAs in the Philippines showed that the majority (up to 80%) of these
MPAs are not successful and that their implementation is quite challenging
in the current socio-political and environmental context (Pollnac
et al., 2001). This comes as no surprise to anyone that has attempted
to address the myriad of simultaneous forces weak institutions, lack of
financial and human resources, poverty that undermine the sustainable
management of Philippine coastal resources. The establishment of community-based MPAs in the Philippines follows
a well-defined blueprint which employs community organizing, education
and leadership development as means to addressing societal problems facing
politically and economically marginalized communities (Wells
and White, 1995; Alcala, 1998).
It is based on an iterative process of problem identification, education,
leadership building and action taking (White et
al., 1994; Ferrer et al., 1996).
The outcome of this process, in this instance, has been the establishment
of small, community-controlled MPAs, usually intended to protect fringing
coral reefs (and their associated fish and invertebrate communities) and
to improve the socio-economic opportunities available to coastal communities
largely through increased fish yields and alternative income generation. Two MPAs, Balicasag and Pamilacan, both in Bohol Province in Central
Philippines follow this community-based management approach. Although
generally well-managed, they have been only partly successful in improving
the overall condition of the islands’ marine environment. Their case emphasizes
that while essential, small, community-controlled MPAs are individually
not a complete management measure. To be truly effective, they must be
nested within broader management regimes that lead to overall fishing
effort reduction and networking of MPAs. The approximately 30-ha Balicasag Island, with its 31-ha reef with steep dropoffs, has attracted the attention of conservationists and divers since the 1970s. In 1985, with funding from the United States Agency for International Development, 8 ha of the Balicasag Island reef were protected as a no-take marine sanctuary through a community project implemented by Silliman University (White and Savina, 1987; White and Dobias, 1991; Wells and White, 1995). Fishing, but only with traditional and non-destructive methods, was allowed on the remainder of island's reef. The sanctuary was established through a process of education and community
organizing that culminated in the passage of a local municipal ordinance.
Historically, the ordinance was enforced by local people who were members
of a management committee. However, since 1990, that committee's responsibility
has decreased as a government agency, the Philippine Tourism Authority,
established a resort on the shores of the sanctuary, and generally usurped
the decision-making process and took over active protection of the sanctuary. Although detailed historic data are not available, dive tourism on Balicasag
is perceived to have increased substantially since the establishment of
the MPA. Approximately 12,000 visitors dive on the reef annually, but
only a small percentage stay on the island. Associated cottage industries,
such as shell craft and souvenirs, catering to these visitors have become
an important source of income for island residents. The 200-ha Pamilacan Island has a sloping 180-ha reef that are less dramatic
than Balicasag’s, more dominated by exposed rock (perhaps due to strong
monsoon season wave action), and more heavily impacted by destructive
fishing in the 1970s and 1980s. The island's approximately 1250 residents
utilize their island's reef resources, but rely to a greater extent than
Balicasag fishers on pelagic marine resources such as whale sharks (Rhincodon
typus), mackerel (Scombrids),
and manta rays (Manta birostris).
In 1986, less than 20% of the fish catch was reported to come from the
reef, an indication of the reef's poor condition and the island’s traditional
dependence on deepwater species (Savina and White,
1986a). In that year, invertebrates, small fishes and algae gleaned
from the reef flats comprised 40% of the 17.9MT/km2 yield,
showing the importance of reef flats on this island and the very productive
nature of this nearshore ecosystem (Savina and
White, 1986b) Since March 1986, 14 ha of Pamilacan's reef (along 600m of shore on the
west side) has been protected as a marine sanctuary by the community,
also through the USAID-funded project implemented by Silliman University
(White and Savina, 1987; Wells
and White, 1995). This sanctuary has been carefully maintained
according to island residents and government officials. When we arrived,
unannounced, to the sanctuary in 1999, we were immediately asked by a
local fisher to report to community leaders to explain the purpose of
our visit and that no fish would be collected as part of this research.
Unlike Balicasag Island, the sanctuary does not attract many scuba divers
and the island community does not encourage diving within the sanctuary.
The rest of the island's reef is managed as a traditional fishing reserve
similar to Balicasag. The Balicasag and Pamilacan MPAs have had mixed success in maintaining
the health of these coral reefs and their associated fish populations,
respectively improving or maintaining coral coverage at close to historic
levels of the mid-1980s. Coral cover has increased by 119% in Balicasag’s
sanctuary, and by 67% in its non-sanctuary areas during the period 1984-1999
(Divinagracia, 2000), but the island’s
reef is increasingly affected by breakage from anchors of dive boats and
Crown-of-thorns starfish infestations. During the same period, living
hard coral cover decreased by 20% in Pamilacan’s sanctuary, and by 45%
in its non-sanctuary (Divinagracia, 2000). The reasons that coral cover has improved in one site but not the other are not clear, especially as the incidence of activities and conditions resulting in coral damage are higher on Balicasag than Pamilacan. One explanation, based on observations of the two reefs since the early 1980s, is that the Pamilacan reef naturally has less coral cover than Balicasag because it is a more sandy environment with less pronounced currents and drop-offs. Sedimentation is not a likely explanation since both islands are small, relatively flat, and distant from larger islands. Bleaching and Crown-of-thorn starfish infestations impact each of these
reefs while poorly managed dive tourism (as indicated by the lack of mooring
buoys resulting in anchor damage) is mostly affecting Balicasag's reef.
Undoubtedly the cessation of destructive fishing practices has been a
positive factor at both sites. Despite considerable success in maintaining the MPA at Balicasag Island,
it has been unable to reverse the trend over time of declining fish abundance
and species richness outside, but near, the sanctuary. In general, fish
abundance and diversity within and outside the sanctuary peaked in 1986,
a year after the establishment of the sanctuary when enforcement was most
vigilant. This declining trend is distinct from that documented for Apo
Island off Negros Island (Russ and Alcala, 1996),
where with a similar MPA there has been a significant positive correlation
between mean predatory fish density and species diversity within the sanctuary
and non-sanctuary and years of protection. On Apo, it appears that a spillover
effect from the sanctuary to the non-sanctuary had, as of 1993, increased
both fish species richness and abundance in the non-sanctuary near the
sanctuary. Considering living coral cover has been steadily improving,
the marked decrease in target fish abundance and species richness in the
Balicasag non-sanctuary suggests that the area outside the sanctuary is
subject to considerable, and probably increasing, fishing effort. This
is not likely the case for Apo Island, which is relatively isolated. Detailed analysis of national fisheries statistics (Smith
et al., 1983; Barut et al., 1997;
White and Trinidad, 1998; Pauly,
2000) and international trends (Silvestre
and Pauly, 1997; FAO, 1999), demonstrate
that fishing effort and efficiency have increased over time throughout
the Philippines, and are in excess of what is needed to harvest maximum
sustainable yield. In-depth interviews of resident Balicasag Island fishers
and extensive rapid appraisals conducted in the vicinity indicate that
fishing effort continues to increase while catch-per-unit-effort declines
in this part of the Philippines. In fact, rapid appraisals reveal that
daily fish catch has dropped from approximately 20 kg to 2.2 kg per fisher
per day over a 20-year period (White and Trinidad,
1998). It is plausible, and worthy of investigation, that the
presence of the MPA and initial improved fish abundances may attract fishers
from off-islands (as there are no marine tenure or licensing systems to
prevent this) as coral reef conditions worsen throughout the Philippines
(Gomez et al., 1994). While overall abundance of fish in the sanctuaries has been maintained,
there is an obvious decline in target fish abundances in the Balicasag
and Pamilacan sanctuaries. The fact that fish abundance within the sanctuary
for all species has stabilized at pre-establishment levels and fish abundance
for target species has declined is contrary to findings for other sites
in the Philippines (Russ and Alcala, 1996;
Christie et al., in press). Furthermore,
certain non-target fish such as Anthids and Pomacentrids are becoming
more abundant and account for an increasing percentage of the fish counted.
In 1985, Pomacentrids and Anthids represented 26% and 49% of the total
fish abundances in the Pamilacan and Balicasag sanctuaries respectively.
By 1999, these two fish families accounted for 75% and 81% of all fish
within the Pamilacan and Balicasag sanctuaries. Combined contributions
from the target fish families Serranids, Lutjanids, Haemulids, Lethrinids,
and Carangids to overall fish abundances in the two sanctuaries remained very low, ranging between
less than 0.5% and 2%. Poaching inside and intense fishing pressures outside
sanctuaries may be reducing predatory fish, thus allowing Pomacentrids
and Anthids, to proliferate. Also, worsening reef conditions at Pamilacan
Island (Figure 5) may favor certain algae-grazing species. Declining target fish abundance and species diversity may also indicate that, because of intense fishing pressure in their surrounding areas, the sanctuaries on Pamilacan (14 ha) and Balicasag (8 ha) are too small to maintain fish populations both inside sanctuaries and on adjacent reefs. While Apo Island’s sanctuary is of comparable size (11.2 ha) and design,
it is more remote than either Balicasag or Pamilacan, more strictly enforced,
and its residents now benefit from alternative income options associated
with increasing tourism. Tourism revenues directly benefiting Apo Island
residents were recorded in 1996 to be more than double the revenues due
to fishing on the island from the sanctuary (Vogt,
1997; White and Trinidad, 1998).
The presence of an alternative livelihood may have the effect of reducing
fishing pressure, although at least one study has shown that fishers continue
to fish while taking on added work responsibilities (Pollnac
et al., 2001). The benefits from the MPAs are multiple, but not all accrue to local island residents. Studies of similar reefs indicate that the MPAs on Balicasag and Pamilacan are likely to result in increased fish yields for fishers (White and Savina, 1987; Alcala and Russ, 1990; Christie and White, 1994); Russ and Alcala, 1996; Roberts et al., 2001). However, the increased yields for local island residents realized in the years immediately after MPA establishment appear to be dwindling. During interviews, 8 of 11 fishers from Balicasag said their fish catch increased from 1986 to 1992, but 9 out 15 reported their fish catch decreased from 1992 to 1999. In Pamilacan, 16 out 18 fishers claimed their fish catch increased from 1986 to 1999, but 4 out of 10 said their fish catch decreased from 1992 to 1999. On both islands, informants maintain that non-resident fishers, not dedicating
their own fishing grounds to MPAs, are benefiting as well. Similarly,
dive boat operators bringing tourists from urban centers capture much
of the profit associated with diving on Balicasag. While Balicasag residents
benefit from alternative income derived from souvenir sales (mainly woven
mats, t-shirts and deepwater shells), during the 8-day 1999 research trip,
all commercial dive boats visiting Balicasag's MPA were from off island.
As with Apo Island, the level of community commitment to reef management
and ability to capture tourism revenues is correlated with benefits accrued
to local residents (White et al., 1994;
White and Vogt, 2000). It is also likely that the erosion of community control over the Balicasag
MPA has had a detrimental effect on its management. Comments during interviews
and the steady decline in fish abundance from the peak in 1986, when community
participation in the MPA implementing project and MPA enforcement were
most effective, indicate that some poaching has taken place. In the case
of Balicasag, it has been reported that some unscrupulous scuba divers
have occasionally entered the sanctuary at night to spearfish. Residents
complained of the heavy-handed influence of the Philippine Tourism Authority
that displaced the original community-led management organization. Unconfirmed reports indicate disgruntled local fishers may also be poaching.
As with other common pool resources, the lack of local control, breakdown
in local leadership, and the accruing of benefits to outsiders who do
not share the burden of the MPA tend to encourage residents to violate
the management regime (Cooke et al., 2000;
Ostrom, 1992). Nevertheless, the vast majority of informants still value the MPAs, perhaps
since they realize at least some increase in yields. Approval ratings
for the MPAs by local residents has increased for both islands. In 1999,
14 out of 14 residents approved of the MPA on Balicasag (up from three
out of six in 1986), while 12 out of 12 residents approved of the MPA
on Pamilacan (up from ten out of 12 in 1986). And, despite their criticism
of how the Balicasag sanctuary is currently managed, residents desire
an active role in managing the sanctuary and to capture revenues for their
community. Balicasag, Pamilacan and other MPAs have provided models for coral reef management in the Philippines and elsewhere. The community-based MPAs of the Philippines have inspired similar efforts throughout the tropics, in the USA and elsewhere (Christie and White, 2000). They have served as learning laboratories that highlight the value of coral reefs and the potential of communities to manage their own natural resources. Still, management of these MPAs needs to adapt to evolving circumstances.
The above findings imply that, while no-take zones may be effective at
maintaining fish abundance and diversity within their boundaries, it is
probably unrealistic to expect that scattered, small no-take areas can
maintain fish abundance and diversity on surrounding reef when high levels
of fishing effort remove almost all spillover. Community-based MPAs, while
an important management tool, should be utilized as one strategy within
an overall scheme that addresses issues such as increasing fishing effort
and efficiency and habitat degradation (Silvestre
and Pauly, 1997; White and Vogt, 2000;
Courtney et al., 2002; White
et al., 2002). Without addressing the larger issues such as increased
fishing effort and lack of community control in Balicasag's case, these
MPAs will come under increasing pressure and are likely to ultimately
fail (Sandersen and Koester, 2000<link to sandersen00>). A conclusion that advocates exclusively for large MPAs in lieu of small,
community-based MPAs is however not appropriate under the circumstances.
Properly managed large MPAs, while more effective at protecting ecosystem
functions, fish biomass and biodiversity (Roberts,
1997), may not be feasible in the Philippines, where poverty is
widespread and there is a challenging institutional context. Community-based
MPAs, despite their limitations, have been one of the few success stories
in these difficult contexts. In line with recent suggestions (Allison
et al., 1998; Boersma and Parrish, 1999;
Carr, 2000), the intention of this analysis
is to prompt improved design and a realistic understanding of these types
of MPAs. Our recommendations for improving the management of these MPAs,
and others in the region facing similar conditions, are as follows:
School of Marine Affairs,
University of Washington, 3707 Brooklyn Ave. NE, Seattle, WA 98105-6715,
USA Coastal Resource Management Project,
Tetra Tech EM, Inc., 5th Floor, CIFC Tower, Cebu City, Phillipines 6000 The authors acknowledge the Earthwatch
Institute and its volunteers for making this research possible.
They also thank the many hospitable local residents of Balicasag, Pamilacan,
Panglao and Cabilao Islands. The participation of Patrick Christie has
been supported by the National Science Foundation (Grant No. DGE-9809668)
and the School of Marine Affairs, University of Washington. The Coastal
Resource Management Project of the Department of the Environment and Natural
Resources, supported by the United States Agency for International Development
(Contract No. AID-492-0444-C-00-60028-00) and implemented by Tetra Tech
EM, Inc., supported the contributions of Alan White and Evelyn Deguit.
Comments from three anonymous reviewers were invaluable. Alcala, A. C. (1998). Community-based
coastal resource management in the Philippines: a case study. Ocean and
Coastal Management 38, 179±186. Alcala, A. C. and Russ, G. R. (1990).
A direct test of the effects of protective management on abundance and
yield of tropical marine resources. J. Cons. Int. Explor. Mer. 47, 40±47. Allison, G. W., Lubchenco, J.
and Carr, M. H. (1998). Marine reserves are necessary but not sufficient
for marine conservation. Ecological Applications 8, S79±S92. Barut, N. C., Santos, M. D. and
Garces, L. R. (1997). Overview of Philippine marine Fisheries. In Status
and Management of Tropical Coastal Fisheries in Asia (G. Silvestre and
D. Pauly, eds), pp. 62±71. Manila: International Center for Living Aquatic
Resources Management (ICLARM) and the Asian Development Bank. Boersma P. D. and Parrish, J.
K. (1999). Limiting abuse: marine protected areas, a limited solution.
Ecological Economics 31, 287±304. Carr, M. H. (2000). Marine protected
areas: challenges and opportunities for understanding and conserving coastal
marine ecosystems. Environmental Conservation 27, 106±109. Chou, L. M. (2000). Southeast Asian
reefsstatus update: Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore,
Thailand and Vietnam. In Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000 (C.
Wilkinson, ed.), pp. 117±129. Cape Ferguson: Australian Institute of Marine
Science. Christie, P., Buhat, D., Garces,
L. R. and White, A. T. (In press). Social and fisheries responses to eleven
years of community-based resource management on San Salvador Island, the
Philippines. In Contested Nature: Power, Protected Areas and the Dispossessed--Promoting
International Biodiversity Conservation with Social Justice in the 21st
Century. (S. R. Brechin, P. R. Wilshusen, C. L. Fortwangler and P. C.
West, eds). Albany: SUNY Press. Christie, P. and White, A. T.
(1994). Reef fish yield and reef condition for San Salvador Island, Luzon,
Philippines. Asian Fisheries Science 7, 135-148. Christie, P. and White, A. T.
(eds). (2000). Tropical Coastal Management. Theme issue Coastal Management
28, 1±122. Cooke, A. J., Polunin, N. V. C.
and Moce, K. (2000). Comparative assessment of stakeholder management
in traditional Fijian Æshing-grounds. Environmental Conservation 27, 291-299. Courtney, C. A., White, A. T.
and Deguit, E. (2002). Building Philippine government capacity for coastal
resource management: methods, progress and trends. Coastal Management
30, 45-63. Divinagracia, M. F. B. (2000).
Extent and Degree of Coral Bleaching in Selected Reefs in Central Visayas.
Master Thesis, Silliman University, Dumaguete City, Philippines. 150 pp. Ferrer, E. M., Polotan de la Cruz,
L. and Domingo, M. A. (eds). (1996). Seeds of Hope. Manila: College of
Social Work and Community Development, The University of the Philippines. Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO). (1998). The State of the World Fisheries and Aquaculture. Rome.
112 pp. Gomez, E. D., Alino, P. M, Yap,
H. T. and Licuanan, W. Y. (1994). A review of the status of Philippine
reefs. Marine Pollution Bulletin 29, 62-68. Hodgson, G. (2000). Coral reef
monitoring and management using reef check. Integrated Coastal Zone Management
1, 169-176. Marshall, P. A. and Baird, A.
H. (2000). Bleaching of corals on the great barrier reef: differential
susceptibilities among taxa. Coral Reefs 19, 155-163. Ostrom, E. (1992). Governing the
Commons, the Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action. New York:
Cambridge University Press. 280 pp. Pauly, D. (2000). Fisheries in the
Philippines and in the world: an overview. Tambuli 6, 23-25. Pollnac, R. B., Pomeroy, R. S.
and Harkes, I. (2001). Fishery policy and job satisfaction in three southeast
Asian fisheries. Ocean and Coastal Management 44, 531-544. Pollnac, R. B., Crawford, B. R.,
Gorospe, M. L. G. (2000). Discovering factors that inØuence the success
of community-based marine protected areas in the Visayas, Philippines.
Ocean and Coastal Management 44, 683-710. Roberts, C. M. (1997). Ecological
advice for the global fisheries crisis. Tree 12, 35±38. Roberts, C. M., Bohnsack, J. A.,
Gell, F., Hawkings, J. P. and Goodridge, R. (2001). Effects of marine
reserves on adjacent fisheries. Science 294, 1920-1923. Russ, G. R. and Alcala, A. C. (1996).
Do marine reserves export adult fish biomass? Evidence from Apo Island,
central Philippines. Marine Ecology Progress Series 132, 1-9. Salm, R. V., Clark, J. and Siirila,
E. (2000). Marine and Coastal Protected Areas: A Guide for Planners and
Managers. Washington DC: International Union for Conservation of Nature
and Natural Resources. 370 pp. Sandersen, H. T. and Koester,
S. (2000). Co-management of tropical coastal zones: the case of the Soufriere
Marine Management Area, St Lucia, WI. Coastal Management 28, 87-97. Savina, G. C. and White, A. T.
(1986a). A tale of two islands: some lessons for marine resource management.
Environmental Conservation 13, 107±113. Savina, G. C. and White, A. T.
(1986b). Reef fish yields and nonreef catch of Pamilacan Island, Bohol,
Philippines. In The First Asian Fisheries Forum Proceedings (J. L. Maclean,
L. B. Dizon and L. V. Hossiollos, eds), pp. 497-500, Manila: Asian Fisheries
Society. Silvestre, G. and Pauly, D.
(1997). Management of tropical coastal Æsheries in Asia: an overview of
key challenges and opportunities. In Status and Management of Tropical
Coastal Fisheries in Asia. (G. Silvestre and D. Pauly, eds), pp. 8-25.
Manila: International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management and
the Asian Development Bank. Smith, I. R., Puzon, M. Y. and Vidal-Libunao,
C. N. (1980). Philippine Municipal Fisheries: A Review of Resources, Technology
and Socioeconomics. Manila: International Center for Living Aquatic Resources
Management. 154 pp. Uychiaoco, A. J., Green, S.
J., Dela Cruz, M. T., Gaite, P. A., Arceo, H. O., Alino, P. M. and White,
A. T. (2001). Coral Reef Monitoring for Management. University of the
Philippines Marine Science Institute, United Nations Development Programme
Global Environment Facility-Small Grants Program, Guinuan Development
Foundation, Inc., Voluntary Service Overseas, University of the Philippines
Center for Integrative and Development Studies, Coastal Resource Management
Project, and Fisheries Resource Management Project. Manila. 70 pp. Vogt, P. H. (1997). The economic
benefits of tourism in the marine reserve of Apo Island, Philippines.
In Proceedings for the Eighth International Coral Reef Symposium, Vol.
2, pp. 2101±2104, Panama City. Wells, S. and White, A. T. (1995).
Involving the community. In Marine Protected Areas: Principles and Techniques
for Management, (S. Gubbay, ed.), pp. 61-84. London: Chapman and Hall. White, A. T. and Savina, G. C. (1987).
Community-based marine reserves, a Philippine first. In Proceedings for
Coastal Zone '87, pp. 2022±2036. Seattle. White, A. T. and Dobias, R. J. (1991).
Community Marine Tourism in the Philippines and Thailand: A Boon or Bane
to Conservation? In Proceedings of the 1990 Congress on Coastal and Marine
Tourism (M. L. Miller and J. Auyong, eds.), pp. 452-459. National Coastal
Resources Research and Development Institute. White, A. T., Hale, L. Z., Renard,
Y. and Cortesi, L. (eds). (1994). Collaborative and Community-Based Management
of Coral Reefs. Lessons from Experience. West Hartford: Kumarian Press.
115 pp. White A. T. and Vogt, H. P. (2000).
Philippine coral reefs under threat: Lessons learned after 25 years of
community-based reef conservation. Marine Pollution Bulletin 40, 537-550. White, A. T., Salamanca, A. and Courtney, C. A. (2002). Experience with marine protected area planning and management in the Philippines. Coastal Management 30, 1-26 *** |
|
|
